Empowerment Through Analysis: Preserving the Legacy of Women Composers Through Detailed Analysis
Updated: Oct 2
INTRODUCTION
Women are underrepresented in the Western classical music tradition. Music theorists primarily analyze music by male composers, and often completely ignore pieces of equivalent quality and usefulness by women. Due to the lack of detailed analyses of music by women, few examples are included in textbooks and anthologies. These prejudices and biases extend to many of the most commonly used analytical techniques. It is acknowledged in academia that, Schenkerian analysis has been applied primarily to music by white, male composers.
In 1882, a critic in the The Musical Times (a popular periodical at the time) wrote, “A woman who, when taking a pencil, pen or music-sheet, forgets what are the character and obligations of her sex, is a monster who excites disgust and repulsion...They are neither men nor women, but something which has no name and no part in life.” This disparaging comment about women composers was only published 141 years ago and shows a glimpse of the challenges women composers faced just a few generations ago. Furthermore, in the music composition world, attitudes towards women composers have not improved as much as they have in other fields.
For centuries, the field of music theory and music analysis has been focused on exploring music written by men as this field was historically controlled by men. Historically, musicologists have been hesitant to include music by women in anthologies and textbooks due to limited analysis of this music. This exclusion of music in textbooks has led to young musicians not being exposed to music by women during their educational careers. Often musicians form deep connections to the music they study and play during their adolescence and educational journeys, as they are forming their musical identities. As a result, many musicians choose to program music by men rather than women when they become established professional musicians, as people are often drawn to what is familiar and what they learned during their formative years.
As part of my ongoing efforts to advocate for the inclusion of works by women in the musical canon, I have been applying linear techniques, textual considerations, and rhythmic/metric analysis to vocal music. The works under consideration were composed by three composers that span across Western history: Maria dolce Maria by Francesca Caccini (1587 - after 1641 [death date unknown]), Liebst du um Schonheit by Clara Schumann (1819-1896), and Shake It Off by Taylor Swift (1989-). Francesca Caccini was the daughter of one of the founders of opera. She was a respected composer during her lifetime as was Clara Schumann (one of the leading concert pianists of her time). Taylor Swift is one of the leading female composers/songwriters of our time and recently became a billionaire.
Methodology: Linear Analysis of Vocal Music
The Work of Theorist Alexander Martin
The work of theorist Alexander Martin first inspired me to apply Schenkerian analysis to vocal music and in the process take into consideration the meaning of the text. Martin is an Assistant Professor of Music Theory at Stetson University. His primary research interest is Schenkerian Analysis approaches to text-music correspondences in tonal art song (especially lieder by Robert and Clara Schumann). He has his PhD in music theory and analysis, from The Graduate Center, CUNY, his Master of Arts degree in music theory from the University of British Columbia, and his Bachelor of Music degree in music history and theory with honors from the University of Toronto.
In his Schenkerian work, he primarily applies linear diagraming practices to vocal music. In his analysis of Robert Schumann’s Husarenlieder, he takes into consideration both the traditional Schenkerian aspects of the songs and their text in his diagrams. He goes through the traditional Schenkerian process of identifying the linear descent and specific related details in both the foreground and the background.
In addition to these linear considerations, he allows the text to inform his diagram. For example, throughout the analysis, he identifies specific melodic motives, labeling them with different letters, and describes how they depict specific concepts or emotions. One such motive is a neighboring half step motive that he labels as his z motive. He also takes into consideration text painting. For example, in the song Den grünen Zeigern he emphasizes certain pitches in the diagram if he views their textual meaning to be significant. He analyzes the words “enemies,” an especially aggressive word in the context of the song, as being harmonized by a minor Neapolitan chord (E minor) and then subsequently becoming an important pitch in terms of his diagram as it neighbors both F sharp (leading tone of the chromatic mediant, G minor) and Eb (the home key).
He gives the vocal line, sung by a baritone in the middle of the registral texture, priority over the piano part in terms of what he emphasizes linearly. I will take this approach into consideration in my linear diagrams. Instead of analyzing vocal works by men, I will concentrate on works by women.
Francesca Caccini and Maria dolce Maria
Francesca Caccini (1587 - after 1641 [death date unknown]) was the daughter of one of the founders of opera, Giulio Caccini.4 She is considered the first woman to have composed an opera and she is known to have been particularly prolific. From this, it is apparent that women had been composing operas since the invention of opera and some even consider Francesca Caccini more famous than her father, Giulio Caccini, due to the large volume of her music that still survives today. She was trained in singing, guitar, harp, keyboard, and composition, and wrote poetry in Italian and Latin.
Caccini was greatly successful as a musician and composer during her lifetime. From 1607 to 1627, she served the powerful Medici family as a singer, teacher, and composer. In the 1620s, she became the highest paid court musician on their payroll. Despite her great success during her lifetime, her music fell into obscurity. In recent decades much of her music has been rediscovered and incorporated into anthologies, such as the New Historical Anthology of Music by Women complied by James R. Briscoe and published by Indiana University Press. Maria, dolce Maria is a sacred madrigal (defined by Caccini as a madrigal spirituale) that
comes from Caccini’s Primo Libro delle Musiche (1618). Her Primo Libro delle Musiche was the largest collection of monody published in Italy in the 1610s. The collection features thirty-two solo songs and four soprano/bass duets and she organizes the works according to poetic genre.
The Score
The original Caccini score uses traditional figured bass notation. Any edition with a fully harmonized piano accompaniment has been edited and realized by the editor. Since Caccini lived in the late Renaissance, there are several moments where she uses modal language. For example, mm. 16-18 could be interpreted as a movement to G minor (the supertonic of the home key, F major); however, there is no leading tone (F sharp) in m. 17, so functionally G minor is not established. Another interesting modal feature is the Phrygian half cadence at m. 36.
In m. 12, different editions notate the run in the vocal part on beat 3 differently. In the New Historical Anthology of Music by Women anthology by James Briscoe, editor Carolyn Raney realizes the run as going up to E natural, which does not fit with the underlying Eb major chord. In the urtext edition (shown in in figure 2) of the Primo libro delle Musische a 1 e 2 voci published by Z. Pignoni in 1618 and edited by André Vierendeels in 2015, the vocal part goes up to F on beat 4 of m. 12, which fits the underlying harmony indicated by the figured bass. As a result, I chose to use the urtext edition as a basis for my diagrams.
Overall, the phrase length in the song is inconsistent. For example, the first four phrases are the following lengths respectively: 4 measures, 6 measures, 7 measures, and 5 measures. Additionally, the various anacrusis entrances of different phrases occur on varying beats. These inconsistencies in form are somewhat alleviated by linear intervallic patterns and frequent middleground descents of the urlinie, as will be seen on the diagram and explained in the next section. These linear aspects help create unity and consistency in a composition that may otherwise not be unified.
The Text
The author of the text of Maria dolce Maria is unknown. This is the original Italian text:
Maria dolce Maria, come soave tanto,
ch'e pronunciar t'in paradisi core,
Nome sacrato e Santo,
ch'el cor m'infiammi di celeste amore,
Maria mai sempr'io canto,
ne puo la lingua mia piu felice parola,
trarmi dal sen gia mai che dir,
che dir Maria,
nome ch'ogni dolor tempra'e consola,
voce tranquilla ch'ogni affano acqueta,
ch'ogni cor fa sereno, ogn'alma lieta.
This is the English translation of the text, which is a combination between the translations of André Vierendeels and Wendy Roobol and my own research:
Maria, sweet Maria, whose name is so lovely,
that to utter it takes your heart to Paradise.
Sacred and holy name,
That it enflames my heart with celestial love
‘Mary,’ I ever sing,
neither can my tongue deliver from my breast
any happier word
than when I say, ‘Mary.’
Name which tempers and consoles every sorrow,
calm voice which assuages every disquiet,
which composes every heart, which gladdens every soul.
The sections of the text in second person, where the vocalist is directly addressing the Virgin Mary are highlighted. The rest of the text is in third person. The urtext score is shown below:
Figure 2. Score of Maria dolce Maria by Francesca Caccini from the Primo libro delle Musische a 1 e 2 voci published by Z. Pignoni in 1618 edited by André Vierendeels in 2015.
Linear Analysis: An Overview of the Diagrams
Three-line Urlinie Descent
For this study, I completed an urlinie tafel and complete set of middleground graphs for Caccini’s song Maria, dolce Maria. The song has a three-line linear descent (A-G-F); however, there are five-line descents within the middleground. On the urlinie tafel diagram (the lowest staff on figure 1), the five-line middleground descents are shown in purple and the three-line middleground descents are represented using red beaming. The black beam in the upper line shows the fundamental descent of the urstaz (A-G-F).
Middleground Urlinie Descents
The three-line urlinie analysis is reinforced by several three-line descents within the middleground. Some of these descents are the same pitches as the urlinie, while others are based around other tonal centers, such as Bb or G (see mm. 11-17). In the deeper middleground, Bb and G are merely neighbors to A, the kopfton (headtone), but on a more foreground level there are brief modulations to Bb major and G minor. Ultimately, the presence of these middleground descents reinforce the fundamental descent of the urlinie.
Linear Intervallic Patterns
There are several linear intervallic patterns in the work that reinforce transitions between harmonies. Most of the linear intervallic patterns are shown on the Schicht 3 diagram. In mm. 11-13 there is a 10-5-10-5 pattern that helps Caccini momentarily establish Bb major. The pattern is terminated at m. 14 once Bb is fully realized with a move to an interval of an octave between the outer parts.
Towards the end of the song, Caccini starts using sequencing to help signal that the piece is progressing to a point of closure. At m. 40 there is a foreshadowing of the linear intervallic pattern that will assist the final descent of the urlinie. Overall, there is a 10-5-10-5 pattern from mm. 40-43. This pattern is reinforced by parallel tenth motions in the more foreground level after each initial tenth.
The same linear pattern (10-5) is used during the final descent of the urlinie in mm. 46-54 over a much larger number of measures. As with earlier linear patterns, the pattern is terminated with an octave between the outer parts. This termination helps bring closure to the final cadence and reinforces the final descent of the urlinie.
Text Painting and the Fibonacci Sequence
There are significant textual and musical moments that happen during measures that relate to the Fibonacci sequence. For example, at m. 21 there is one of the most extensive melismas in the composition, the text changes from third person to first person, and the music overtly transitions away from F major eventually cadencing in G minor a few measures later. At m. 34, which is also a number that is part of the Fibonacci sequence, the text changes back to third person and the music has fully transitioned back to F major, the home key signaling closure. It is unclear whether Francesca Caccini wrote the text herself; however, it is evident that she was thinking about the text, as shown by the previously mentioned points, when constructing the form of her work.
Clara Schumann and Liebst du um Schönheit
Clara Schumann (1819-1896) was an international concert pianist, prolific piano pedagogue with a legacy that has lasted to the present day, and a skilled composer. Schumann wrote in her many letters that she enjoyed the art of composition and even declared during her lifetime that the only true way of achieving immortality was through composing. Even though she was active as a composer, her work often took a secondary position to that of her husband as a composer. Clara was taught piano and music composition from an early age by her father, Friedrich Wieck. Before she married Robert, Clara Wieck was an active composer and enthusiastically performed her own music.
Her first solo concert was on November 8, 1830 in the Gewandhaus. Even this first concert program featured her own composed variations on an original theme and one of her own songs alongside overtures, rondos, other variations, a four-hand work, a romance for physharmonica, and an aria composed by other contemporaries. Her music used the same advanced harmonies and compositional practices that were being used by her male contemporaries, such as Robert Schumann, Frédéric Chopin, and Felix Mendelssohn, as will be seen with the analysis of her song Liebst du um Schönheit later in this paper.
She continued to actively include her compositions in her recitals until her husband’s death in 1856. She was also an active improviser, as all concert artists were expected to be during her time. Many of her improvisations, such as Praeludieren and Fantasieren were preserved due to the urging of her daughters. While these improvisations were published after her death, many of her compositions, such as her four Polonaises op.1 (1831), were published during her lifetime.
Robert Schumann, her husband also supported Clara’s ambitions as a composer. He exchanged musical ideas with her, and they collectively studied scores of Beethoven, Bach, Mozart, and Haydn. He also encouraged Clara to preserve her autograph scores and catalogue her works. He sent her music to publishers and even published two of her works in his journal Neue Zeitschrift für Musik.
Liebst du um Schönheit
Her first published songs were published as part of the collection Zwölf Lieder aus F. Rückert’s Liebesfrühling für Gesang und Pianoforte von Robert und Clara Schumann in Leipzig by Breitkopf & Härtel in 1841.
Even though it is not indicated in the first edition, musicologists believe that songs 2, 4, and 11 were written by Clara Schumann. Liebst du um Schönheit, that has text by Friedrich Rückert, was the fourth song in the collection. The moving lines of the piano part contrast with the declamatory vocal part. The piano takes over the vocal line in m. 16.
This takeover of the vocal line is expanded in mm. 34-36 to create a climax and is followed by a connected piano postlude that brings closure. The declamatory, monotone nature of the vocal line reflects the longing nature of the text. She is pleading for true love rather than superficial sentiment. The following is Nancy B. Reich’s translation of the text of Liebst du um Schönheit. Unlike in Caccini’s Maria dolce Maria, Schumann uses second person throughout her song. One of the most prominent features of the text is the frequent use of repetition. This overall sense of repetition is reflected, as will be seen, in form and linear aspects of the composition.
Liebst du um Schönheit,
O nicht mich liebe!
Liebe die Sonne,
Sie trägt ein goldnes Haar.
Liebst du um Jugend,
O nicht mich liebe!
Liebe den Frühling,
Der jung ist jedes Jahr.
Liebst du um Schätze,
O nicht mich liebe!
Liebe die Meerfrau,
Sie hat viel Perlen klar.
Liebst du um Liebe,
O ja, mich liebe!
Liebe mich immer,
Dich lieb’ ich immerdar.
If you love because of beauty,
then do not love me!
Love the sun,
it has golden hair!
If you love because of youth,
then do not love me!
Love the springtime,
it is young every year.
If you love because of treasures,
then do not love me,
Love the mermaid,
she has many shining pearls,
If you love for love,
O then do love me,
Love me forever,
for I love you for eternity.
Harmonic Analysis
Before creating a set of linear graphs for Liebst du um Schönheit I completed a thorough harmonic analysis using Roman numerals (shown in Figure 4). Clara Schumann lived in the Romantic period, so her music is easily analyzed through traditional diatonic methods.
Linear Analysis: An Overview of the Diagrams
For this study, I completed an urlinie tafel and complete set of middleground graphs for Clara Schumann’s lied Liebst du um Schönheit. There were many factors that I considered while completing the diagrams. In my set of linear diagrams, the vocal part takes priority. For example, the final descent of the urstaz coincides with the final descent in the vocal part rather than where the piano music ends. This piece has a five-line descent of the urlinie. The background decent of the urstaz is shown with pink beaming.
Middleground Descents of the Urlinie
There are multiple middleground descents of the urlinie (Ab-Gb-F-Eb-Db), which are shown with purple beaming on the diagram in figure 5. Most of these descents are interrupted (mm. 8-10 and mm. 24-26). Notably, the middleground descent that occurs halfway through the composition is not interrupted (mm. 13-19). This middleground descent is important because it foreshadows the final descent of the urlinie as part of the urstaz (mm. 29-36) that occurs at the end of the song. Schumann uses this foreshadowing in a similar way to how Caccini used foreshadowing in Maria dolce Maria. Both women accompany their pinnacle middleground descents with linear intervallic patterns.
Linear Intervallic Patterns
Overall, the linear intervallic patterns in this piece support the overall descent of theurlinie and foreshadow the fundamental descent of the urstaz. Most of the linear intervallic patterns consist of tenth motion. The incomplete middleground descents (mm. 8-10 and mm. 24-26) feature parallel tenths throughout. The complete middleground descent at mm. 13-19 mainly features this tenth pattern before the descent reaches scale degree 4 (Gb). This same linear intervallic pattern is repeated again in the descent of the urstaz at m. 31-33, this time continuing through to the third scale degree (F).
Repetition and Form
The form and phrase structure of Schumann’s Liebst du um Schönheit is more consistent than Caccini’s Maria dolce Maria. Schumann uses the following phrase structure in terms of measures for the first half (mm. 1-18) excluding the 2 measure piano introduction: 2, 2, 4, 2, 2, and 4. This phrase structure is only slightly altered for the second half. The phrase structure for the second half (mm. 19-36) in terms of measures, excluding the piano postlude is as follows: 2, 2, 4, 2, 2, and 6). In addition to this consistency in form, Schumann almost replicates the same linear elements from the first half in the second half creating a highly unified composition.
Taylor Swift and Shake It Off
Taylor Swift (1989-) is one of the leading popular music artists of our time. In her many albums, she has explored and blended many musical genres including country music (albums include Taylor Swift and Speak Now), pop (albums include 1989 and Red), and Indie-folk (albums include Lover and folklore/evermore). Despite her great success in the music industry, she never studied songwriting or composing at the post-secondary level, but her popularity arguably ellipses the popularity of any composer in academia. What makes her music, so appealing to a mass audience? Most classical composers struggle to make a living purely through their music and have to rely on other sources of income. Is there anything classical composers can learn from Taylor Swift?
Pitch and Overall Considerations
The Taylor Swift score analyzed in this project is available upon request.Unlike many other artists, Taylor Swift writes most of the songs she records and has evolved as a composer since she released her first album. In “Shake It Off,” which Taylor Swift released in 2014, as part of her 1989 album, she writes ambiguous harmony. “Shake It Off” is a perfect example of how to use harmonic ambiguity and the absence of pitch and its subsequent reintroduction to create tension and a more satisfying eventual resolution. It is not by chance that this song is ubiquitously well-known and highly commercially successful. There is no definite harmony until 28 seconds into the song and that first chord is not the tonic. The first full chord we hear is a ii7 chord. We cycle through subdominant and supertonic chords until we finally reach a tonic chord at the beginning of the chorus. After this initial tonic chord, the chorus remains firmly within the home key, G major. Swift does not modulate in “Shake It Off.” During the harmonically stable chorus, she emphasizes a 3-2-1 scale degree linear descent within the melody. This linear descent further emphasizes the key of G major.
Despite the stability of the choruses, other sections, such as the opening, the verses, and the bridge, are highly unstable as the result of many factors. In the harmonically ambiguous opening and subsequent verses, Taylor Swift sings a melody with firmly outlines the tonic chord against a counter melody played by a brass synth that is centered around the VII chord, which is not a diatonic chord within a major key, such as the key of this piece. The tension between Taylor’s diatonic vocal melody and the non-diatonic synth countermelody catches the listener’s attention and sets up the listener to feel a sense of relief when they reach the chorus, which is firmly within the tonic harmony. The verses follow much of the same pattern as the choruses. In the bridge section, Swift abandons pitch and gently raps against a drumbeat. This abandonment of pitch reflects the change in mood of the text. In this section, Swift raps about an instant when her ex-boyfriend brings his new girlfriend to meet her. She quickly moves from this tension filled bridge section to the uplifting pre-chorus and chorus where she declares she is going to “shake it off.” The predominant and subdominant chords of the pre-chorus alert us to the return of the tonic harmony and give us a sense of closure as the song finishes by repeating the chorus material.
Swift’s merging of genres, such as pop and hip hop in “Shake It Off,” is also inspiring. Merging popular genres with contemporary classical music may be a good way for composers to make their music more appealing to a wider audience. This merging of styles is arguably a primary reason why Taylor Swift is so successful!
Rhythmic/Metric Analysis of Shake It Off
Like in a lot of popular music, the rhythm in Shake It Off is one of its most complex and powerful features. I produced a rhythmic/metric map of Shake It Off to gain a clearer picture of how the various rhythmic components (drums, bass, vocals, and synth harmonies) of the song interact and reinforce or undermine the meter and/or the natural speech rhythms of the text. In my analysis, I produced both a rhythmic map showing all of the parts (figure 6) and an aggregate rhythmic map (figure 7) to use to draw conclusions. There were multiple considerations. Systematic Features of the Full Rhythmic Map I established specific methods for labelling key features of the diagrams. Labelling these key features helped make identifying key moments easier. The repeating rhythmic cells of the drum loop are shown by alternating colors of pink and red. Despite the different colors each cell is identical. All the sections are labelled. The score is laid out as the song is performed. All of the repeats are fully written out. The measures numbers in the diagram reflect the measure numbers in the score (see Appendix A). Melismas are indicated with a slur and tenuto markings over notes.
Systematic Features of the Aggregate Rhythmic Map
The aggregate rhythmic map in figure 7 consists of all of the rhythms of all of the parts combined. I have indicated in pink the measures where there are continuous eighth notes. The measures where all of the parts have the same rhythm apart from the drums are indicated in blue. Like the full rhythmic map, the measure numbers in the diagram correspond to the measure numbers in the score and the repeats are fully written out.
Holes in the Rhythm Drive Towards the Chorus
I first used the aggregate diagram to identify places where there were holes in the rhythm that occurred on the beat. There is a rhythmic hole in m. 28 on beat 3. Taylor Swift uses this hole in the rhythm to draw attention to the start of the chorus. The anacrusis leading into the chorus occurs on beat four in the same measure, directly after this hole. The other rhythmic hole occurs at the end of the rap/bridge section at m. 70. Importantly, this rhythmic break also leads directly into the chorus.
These moments are examples of Taylor Swift using silence as a means of building momentum going into the chorus. She creates drive forward by momentarily interrupting the meter and, thus, separating the listener from the texture. Additionally, the consistent inclusion of these silences acts as a signal to the listener that they are about to listen to familiar material and, in the case of the silence at the end of the rap, the hole in the texture helps bring eventual closure to the end of the song.
Measures with Continuous Eighth Notes
Next, I identified measures with continuous eighth notes. On the aggregate diagram, these are labelled in pink. The following are the measures with continuous eighth notes, excluding the more complex sections of the rap: m. 14 (only during the second verse), m. 27 (the end of the Pre-Chorus), m. 65 (during the rap), and m. 68 (during the rap). The most important of these measures, in terms of the form of the song, is m. 27. The continuous eighth notes in m. 27 are followed by one of the only holes in the rhythm on beat three of m. 28, as previously discussed, that leads directly into the chorus.
The Verses Compared to the Chorus
The rhythm in the verses is generally more unpredictable than the rhythm in the chorus. From the aggregate diagram, it is clear that there is more syncopation in the verses than the chorus. This rhythmic unpredictability paired with the previously discussed harmonic ambiguity in the verses builds tension. Swift resolves this tension by writing on the beat rhythms in the chorus that reinforce the meter. She combines this rhythmic stability with a strong tonic chord at m. 33 to fully resolve the tension created by the verse.
She goes through the same process when transitioning from the rap section to the chorus. Initially, Swift raps a seemingly indeterminate rhythm that does not always line up with the drumbeat. As the rap progresses, Swift transitions to coordinating the rhythm of the rap with the beat. Beginning at m. 62, Swift evokes the rhythmic stability of the chorus and, thus, signals the imminent return of the chorus. The chorus returns after a brief silence at m. 70 and the return of the chorus leads us to the end of the song.
What the Three Analyses Reveal
In 1882, a critic in the The Musical Times (a popular periodical at the time) wrote, “A woman who, when taking a pencil, pen or music-sheet, forgets what are the character and obligations of her sex, is a monster who excites disgust and repulsion…They are neither men nor women, but something which has no name and no part in life.” This disparaging comment about women composers was only published 141 years ago and shows a glimpse of the challenges women composers faced just a few generations ago. Unfortunately, in the field of music theory and composition women are still facing obstacles. For instance, there is still a lack of detailed analyses of music by women. Since 1994, only 2.47 percent of the Society of Music Theory conference presentations have been on music by women composers. Even this statistic is misleading because half of these presentations were part of special sessions organized by the Society’s Committee on the Status of Women in 2000, 2002, and 2010. My intention is to actively analyze music by women and encourage others to do likewise. Ultimately, I hope that these analytical contributions to the field will bring more awareness to women composers and encourage musicians and non-musicians to embrace their music. This treatise aims to help correct these inequalities by adding detailed analyses of music by women from three diverse time periods to the realm of music scholarship.
In this study, I analyzed Caccini’s song Maria dolce Maria, Schumann’s lied Liebst du um Schonheit, and Swift’s song Shake It Off, advocating for the inclusion of music by women in instructional materials and anthologies. For Caccini’s Maria dolce Maria and Schumann’s Liebst du um Schonheit, I produced a complete set of linear graphs. Both composers used many similar linear techniques, such as linear intervallic patterns and frequent middleground descents of the urlinie that reinforce the fundamental descent of the urstaz. Both composers also consider the text in their pieces. Schumann uses a text that is in second person and contains a lot of repetition to create a composition with balanced phrasing. On the other hand, Caccini uses text that begins in third person, progresses to second person and then returns back to third person. She arranges the text, so that these changes in second and third person happen at measures that correspond to numbers of the Fibonacci sequence. She also places important harmonic transitions and prominent melismatic singing at some of these points.
My analysis of Taylor Swift was focused primarily on rhythm. I created a full and rhythmic map of Shake It Off. Overall, I found that the verses were more unpredictable than the choruses, as they were less harmonically certain and contained more syncopation and less rhythmic unity of parts. Leading into choruses, Swift incorporates holes into the rhythm that help the music propel forward. These rhythmic holes are often proceeded by continuous eighth note motion further accentuating the impact of the silence. Swift also reflects the stability of the chorus in her text. The verses and rap/bridge focus on issues she is facing while the chorus encourages us to “shake it off.”
Overall, all three women are going through the same process, but using slightly different techniques. They all create expectations for the listener and use these expectations to guide the listener on a journey that brings them closer to the essence and meaning of the text. Analysis allows theorists to identify how these composers construct this journey. Well done, detailed analyses of pieces can be used by generations of musicians for learning and performance interpretation purposes, thus encouraging them to become more familiar with the work. In essence, analyzing a work gives it value and empowers those who create it. I hope this treatise will inspire theorists, composers, conductors, and performers to consider and embrace music by women.
Bibliography
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Briscoe, James R. Historical Anthology of Music by Women. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987.
Caccini, Francesca. Maria dolce Maria from the Primo libro delle Musische a 1 e 2 voci. Published by Z. Pignoni in 1618. Edited by André Vierendeels in 2015.
Cusick, Suzanne G. “Caccini, Francesca.” Grove Music Online. 2001; Accessed 23 Nov. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40146.
Duncan, Cheryll. Review of The Siren of Heaven—A Glimpse into the Life and Works of Francesca Caccini, by Juliet Fraser (soprano) and Jamie Akers (theorbo). Early Modern Women 12, no. 2 (2018): 218-223. https://doi.org/10.1353/emw.2018.0022.
Kouvaras, Linda, Maria Grenfell, and Natalie Williams. A Century of Composition by Women: Music Against the Odds. Palgrave Macmillan, 2022.
Martin, Alexander. 2013. “A Schenkerian Approach to Text-Music Relations in Selected Lieder by Robert Schumann.” Electronic Theses and Dissertations (ETDs) 2008+. The University of British Columbia. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.14288/1.0074248.
Reich, Nancy B., and Natasha Loges. “Schumann [née Wieck], Clara.” Grove Music Online. 29 Mar. 2021; Accessed 25 Nov. 2023. doi.org/10.1093/omo/9781561592630.013.90000380188.
Swift, Taylor. Shake It Off [audio CD and sheet music]. Nashville, TN: Sony/ATV Music
Publishing LLC and Taylor Swift Music, 2014.
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